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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 9 Abstracts
WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF CULLING RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS)
E L Bradshaw* and P Bateson
Sub-Department of Animal Behaviour, University of Cambridge, Madingley CB3 0ES, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints at: University of Oxford Veterinary Services, Parks Rd, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 3-24
In southwestern England, red deer, Cervus elaphus, are culled by rifle ("stalking") or by hunting with hounds ("hunting"). We compare the welfare costs of the two culling methods. Observations of hunts revealed that likely stressors such as close proximity to humans and hounds, active pursuit, noise, obstruction and physical restraint prior to despatch were very common. Other stressors, such as wounding, were rare. The blood profiles of hunted deer were compared both with injured deer, which were put down because they were thought to be suffering, and with stags stalked in the rutting season, when mature males rapidly lose weight and may be damaged in fights. Extensively hunted deer did not differ from severely injured deer in measures of muscle disruption: in hunted deer measures of red blood cell damage and psychological stress were higher. Hunted stags killed during the rut showed markedly higher levels of measures of blood and muscle cell disruption, psychological stress and fat reserve mobilization than stalked stags killed during this season. Estimates of wounding rates by stalkers showed that 11 per cent of deer required two or more shots to kill, 7 per cent took 2&endash;15 min to die and 2 per cent escaped wounded. Overall, we judged that the welfare costs associated with hunting red deer were higher than those associated with stalking, and reducing the welfare costs associated with hunting was much less feasible than reducing those associated with stalking.
Keywords: animal welfare, Cervus elaphus, hunting, population control, red deer, stalking
FEAR-RELATED BEHAVIOUR IN TWO MOUSE STRAINS DIFFERING IN LITTER SIZE
A M Janczak*, B O Braastad and M Bakken
Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Animal Science, PO Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 25-38
The present experiment compared the fear-related behaviour of a mouse strain selected over 101 generations for high litter size with that of a randomly selected strain. The H-strain, selected for large litter size, has a mean (± SD) litter size at birth of 21.5 ± 3.5 pups. The randomly bred C-strain has a mean (± SD) litter size of 9.6 ± 2.2 pups. The elevated plus-maze, the light:dark test and a resident:intruder test were used to measure how the mice responded to novelty. In the elevated plus-maze, a well-validated model of animal anxiety, the H-strain was significantly more anxious (having a lower percentage of entries into open arms) than the C-strain at 9 weeks of age. In the light:dark test, in which the light levels were similar to those in the home environment, the H-strain did not differ significantly from the C-strain in its avoidance of the brightest area. In the resident:intruder test, where aggression-trained, older H-strain males were the residents, 11-week-old intruding mice of the C-strain spent a higher percentage of their time in flight and immobility than intruders of the H-strain. There were clear anxiety- and fear-related differences between the strains, which may be related to their selection history. The results illustrate a need for further studies on the consequences of selection for increased production for the ability of animals to adapt to their home environment and cope with environmental changes.
Keywords: animal welfare, anxiety, behavioural strategy, fear, mouse, selection
THE EFFECT OF MATS ON THE WELFARE OF SOWS AND PIGLETS IN THE FARROWING HOUSE
L A Boyle*¹,², D Regan¹, F C Leonard¹, P B Lynch¹ and P Brophy²
1 Pig Production Department, Teagasc, Moorepark Research Centre, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
2 Department of Animal Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 39-48
The objective of this study was to assess the effect of providing mats in the farrowing pen on behaviour and lesions in sows (n = 38) and piglets. Nineteen of the sows and their litters housed in farrowing crates with metal slatted floors were provided with mats, the remaining 19 acting as controls. Sow skin was inspected pre-farrowing and at weaning: the skin and feet of piglets were examined when they were 6 days old. Skin lesions were scored (on a scale of 0 to 6) according to severity. Total lesion scores per sow and median total lesion scores per litter were calculated. Sow behaviour was recorded by direct observation at feeding. Usage of a heat pad for lying in the presence or absence of mats was assessed over a 2hr observation period. Median skin lesion scores of sows did not differ between treatments. Litters from the control treatment had lower skin lesion scores (median [range] 8 [2&endash;12] vs 10 [5&endash;21]; P < 0.05). Median lesion scores of the front legs tended to be higher for piglets on mats (median [range] 8 [1.5&endash;13] vs 4 [1.5&endash;8]; ns). Sows on metal flooring went from kneeling to lowering their hindquarters faster (median [range] 15 [2&endash;45] s) than sows on mats (23 [11&endash;54] s) (P < 0.05). Furthermore, they slipped more on their front (median [range] 2.7 [0&endash;8.7] vs 0 [0&endash;1.3] slips min-1; P < 0.001) and hind (median [range] 5.3 [0.3&endash;31.7] vs 1.9 [0&endash;33.3] slips min-1; P < 0.05) feet while standing, than sows on mats. More piglets lay on the heat pad when it was covered by a mat (mean ± SEM 45.97 ± 4.49 %) than when no mat was provided (29.29 ± 4.47 %) (P < 0.05). Mats improve sow comfort and reduce slipping. They encourage piglets to lie on the heat pad but cause damage to the skin of the front legs. Providing pigs with mats in the farrowing house could greatly improve welfare on slatted floors, but further research is needed to identify materials that are less abrasive.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, lesions, pigs
BEHAVIOURAL AND HORMONAL INDICATORS OF ENDURING ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS IN DOGS
B Beerda¹,², M B H Schilder*², J A R A M van Hooff², H W de Vries¹ and J A Mol¹
1 Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
2 Department of Ethology and Socio-Ecology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 14, PO Box 14, 3508 TB, Utrecht, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 49-62
Four groups of dogs, which had been subjected to housing conditions of varying quality for years, were assumed to experience different levels of stress. The groups were compared for behavioural and hormonal parameters in order to identify measures that indicate chronic stress in the dog and which may help to identify poor welfare in this species. As a standard for comparison, one of the four groups was composed of privately owned dogs; we assumed that chronic stress levels were relatively low in this group (GI). The three remaining groups of dogs (GII, GIII and GIV) were kept under conditions of low to relatively high austerity, and had basal urinary ratios of cortisol to creatinine, adrenaline to creatinine and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline to creatinine, that varied from low to high, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in cortisol to creatinine ratios when comparing GI to GII, GIII and GIV and when GII was compared to GIV. Statistical analyses indicated that the mean adrenaline to creatinine ratio in GI differed from that in the remaining groups and that the ratio in GII differed from that in GIII. Noradrenaline to creatinine ratios differed significantly only between GI and GIII. Dopamine to creatinine ratios and noradrenaline to adrenaline ratios did not differ significantly between groups. When dogs were not disturbed, those that were kept under the most austere conditions typically had high levels of locomotor activity, nosing, urinating and paw lifting. After mild disturbance by a slamming door or in the presence of a researcher these animals reacted actively, with increased locomotor activity, circling and nosing, and they showed high levels of behaviours that have previously been associated with acute stress: body shaking, yawning, ambivalent postures and displacement behaviours. Chronic stress in dogs may be identified by increased paw lifting when animals are not disturbed and by ample behavioural expressions of arousal when they are mildly stimulated. Since some behaviours may occur in contexts not related to stress, behavioural data are easily misinterpreted with regard to chronic stress. Interpretation will only be meaningful when physiological measures such as urinary adrenaline to creatinine ratios and, especially, urinary cortisol to creatinine ratios are also determined.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, chronic stress, dog, urinary catecholamines, urinary cortisol
TRANSPORT OF DEER: A REVIEW WITH PARTICULAR RELEVANCE TO RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS)
C A Weeks
Division of Food Animal Science, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science
University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 63-74
Farmed deer, of which the predominant species is the red deer (Cervus elaphus), are increasingly transported to abattoirs for slaughter rather than being shot at pasture. In order to satisfy meat hygiene and marketing requirements, the welfare of deer is often reduced because all farmed animals are stressed by commercial transportation. Several recent experimental studies (reviewed here) have found the magnitude of behavioural and physiological responses of deer to many aspects of handling and transport to be similar to those measured in other farm species, particularly ruminants. Thus, their welfare appears not to be unduly compromised despite their comparatively recent domestication. Deer are, however, particularly flighty and require specialized handling facilities and equipment, the key features of which are summarized.
Legislation covering transport of deer is already operative in many countries with the aim of safeguarding deer welfare. However, the responses of deer to commercial transportation have not yet been measured scientifically. This primary information is needed before a full assessment of the effects of transport on the welfare of deer can be made. Thermal conditions during transit are of importance for deer welfare and these have not been measured, either under experimental conditions or during commercial journeys.
Keywords: animal welfare, farmed animals, handling, legislation, red deer, transport
CONSISTENCY OF MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL STATUS IN DRY-SOWS GROUP-HOUSED IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR SYSTEMS
R H Bradshaw*¹, J Skyrme¹, E E Brenninkmeijer² and D M Broom¹
1 Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
2 Van Hall Instituut, Professional University for Food Technology, Environment and Agriculture, Agora 1, P O Box 1528, 8901 BV Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 75-79
Each of two 20-sow groups consisted of gilts ie virgin sows (one third) and sows (parity 2&endash;5, ie sows which had given birth 2&endash;5 times). One group was housed indoors with a straw-covered lying area and dunging area. Another group was housed outdoors with a covered straw lying area and two rooting fields. Behavioural observations were made on both groups: indoor sows were observed for 4h day-1, for 10 days (40h); outdoor sows were observed for 6h day-1, for 21 days (126h). Social interactions were classified as threat, bite, knock and push. Continuous data on the type of interaction and the winner or loser were recorded. Four measures of social status, based on social behaviour, were calculated: i) displacement index; ii) level of interaction; iii) success in interactions; and iv) matrix dominance. Spearman rank correlation coefficients between different ranked measures of social status within each group (outdoor or indoor) were significant for displacement index, success in interaction and matrix dominance. The level of interaction did not correlate with other measures (except for matrix dominance in the indoor group). Measures of displacement, success in interaction and matrix dominance provide highly consistent and correlated measures of social status.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, dominance, social status, sows
ANIMAL WELFARE VS FREE TRADE - FREE TRADE WINS: AN EXAMINATION OF THE ANIMAL WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF R V MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD EX P COMPASSION IN WORLD FARMING (1998)
S Brooman* and D Legge
Liverpool John Moores University, School of Law and Applied Social Studies,
1 Myrtle Street, Liverpool L7 4DN, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 81-85
The European Union (EU) has often been regarded as a prime mover in the cause of improved animal welfare. There is a great deal of European legislation to support this contention. This article discusses a recent case brought by the UK Government under Article 177 of the Treaty of Rome 1957 which challenges the assumption that EU law always favours animal welfare. We suggest that free trade is the driving force behind EU legislation and that where this conflicts with animal welfare, free trade is usually preferred.
Keywords: animal welfare, European Union, free trade, veal crates
TAKING LAMBS TO THE SLAUGHTER: MARKETING CHANNELS, JOURNEY STRUCTURES AND POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES FOR WELFARE
K C Murray, D H Davies, S L Cullinane, J C Eddison* and J A Kirk
Seale-Hayne Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Land Use, University of Plymouth, Newton Abbot, Devon TQ12 6NQ, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 111-122
Consumers now demand evidence of welfare assurance at all stages of animal production, marketing, transport and slaughter. In response, retailers have increasingly adopted preferred supply chain relationships which preclude sourcing animals via livestock auction markets. One of the criteria dictating this action is a perceived improvement in animal welfare resulting from direct transport from farm to abattoir.
A survey of complete journey structures of 18 393 slaughterweight lambs from farm to abattoir was conducted between April and July 1997. Journeys were characterized in terms of distances travelled, duration and the number of discrete components within a whole journey which comprised: transport; trans-shipping (when animals were transferred from one vehicle to another); multiple pickups from a number of farms; and holding at either assembly points, lairages or auction markets. The results identified that journeys in the livestock distribution system are diverse and range in complexity, irrespective of marketing channel. Journey complexity was found to be positively related to distance travelled.
The study demonstrates that discussions concerning welfare of livestock in transit should consider the journey structure and not just the marketing channel per se. Furthermore, it also shows that changes taking place in the infrastructure of the marketing and meat processing sectors may result in a reduction in animal welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, distribution channels, journey structure, lambs, livestock auction markets
MEALWORM DISPENSERS AS ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT FOR CAPTIVE RODRIGUES FRUIT BATS (PTEROPUS RODRICENSIS)
K I O'Connor
Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 123-137
This study is an assessment of the use of mealworm dispensers as environmental enrichment devices for Rodrigues fruit bats (Pteropus rodricensis). Captive animals frequently receive easily consumed food at set times and locations, which often minimizes the time they spend searching for and processing food. The mealworm dispensers used in this study provide an unpredictable food source, which allows the link between foraging and feeding to be reinstated. Mealworm dispensers were placed into the Rodrigues fruit bat enclosure at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and the behaviour of the bats recorded over 14 days. For 7 days the dispensers were empty but, for the remaining 7, 20 mealworms were placed in each dispenser. The number of bats feeding declined with increasing time from initial food presentation in all cases, but the presence of mealworms in the dispensers decreased the rate of decline. In addition, the number of bats active within 20cm of the food in the dishes and on the heater tops increased significantly when mealworms were present. Although the presence of mealworms had no effect on the number of flights made by the group of bats as a whole, both the number of bats on the enclosure floor and the amount of aggression observed in the enclosure decreased when mealworms were present.
Installation of mealworm dispensers meant that the bats found food items as a consequence of their natural exploratory and foraging behaviour, and as such they provided important ingredients for approximating a natural habitat and improving welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, foraging, fruit bats, Pteropus rodricensis
REPETITIVE BACKFLIPPING BEHAVIOUR IN CAPTIVE ROOF RATS (RATTUS RATTUS) AND THE EFFECTS OF CAGE ENRICHMENT
M D Callard¹, S N Bursten² and E O Price¹*
1 Department of Animal Science, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
2 Present address: Department of Psychology and Human Ecology, Cameron University, Lawton, OK 73505, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 139-152
Repetitive "stereotyped" behaviours are often performed by both wild and domestic rodents in small laboratory cages. In this study, a behaviour resembling a backwards somersault or backflip is described and quantified in captive roof rats (ship or black rats, Rattus rattus). Videotapes of captive-bred rat pups showed that repetitive backflipping developed rapidly after weaning. In all subjects, the behaviour was highly cyclical, with more than 90 per cent occurring during the dark phase of the light:dark cycle. Individual variability in the performance of backflipping was considerable but performance levels for each individual were consistent from day to day and at 30 and 60 days of age. Highly significant differences were found between litters (families), indicating important maternal and/or genetic effects on performance levels. Cage enrichment in the form of a wooden nest box resulted in dramatically lower rates of performance. Increased cage height resulted in delayed development of backflipping, as well as changes in the form of the behaviour. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that the development and expression of backflipping in young roof rats may be triggered by weaning and maintained by a heightened state of arousal in a relatively impoverished environment with limited opportunities for perceptual and locomotor stimulation.
Keywords: animal welfare, development, environmental enrichment, roof rat, stereotyped behaviour
VITAMIN A METABOLISM IN RECESSIVE WHITE CANARIES
P Wolf¹*, T Bartels², H-P Sallmann³, K Heisler¹ and J Kamphues¹
1 Institute of Animal Nutrition, The Hannover School of Veterinary Medicine, Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
2 Present address: Institute of Animal Breeding, University of Berne, Switzerland
3 Institute for Biochemistry, The Hannover School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 153-165
In recent years, a possible defect in vitamin A metabolism in recessive white canaries (Serinus canaria) has been repeatedly discussed. It has widely been accepted that a reduced absorption of carotenoids from the small intestine results in an insufficient synthesis of vitamin A. Moreover, the uptake of vitamin A from the lower intestine has also been discussed.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the utilization of ß-carotene and vitamin A by recessive white canaries (in comparison to coloured ones) as well as to quantify the accretion of vitamin A in the liver and vitamin A levels in plasma and fat tissues of canaries fed different doses of ß-carotene (~; 6000iu vitamin A kg-1 diet) vs vitamin A (6000 or 18 000iu kg-1 diet).
The results were as follows:
- coloured canaries supplied exclusively with ß-carotene maintained normal vitamin A levels in the liver. These data indicated that conversion rates of ß-carotene to vitamin A (as established for poultry) were appropriate;
- recessive white canaries were totally unable to utilize ß-carotene (based on vitamin A levels in blood, liver and fat);
- in comparison to coloured canaries, their efficiency in utilizing retinol was significantly lower. They needed three times the vitamin A intake of coloured canaries to achieve the same vitamin A levels in the liver;
- plasma vitamin A levels in coloured canaries did not reflect the vitamin A supply, but this blood level could be used to determine vitamin A status in recessive white birds.
Recommendations of vitamin A supplements for recessive white canaries should be given based on these data.
Keywords: animal welfare, ß-carotene, liver, pet birds, recessive white canaries, vitamin A
ALARM PHEROMONES IN URINE MODIFY THE BEHAVIOUR OF WEANER PIGS
J R Amory and G P Pearce*
Animal Science Research Centre, Harper Adams University College, Newport, Shropshire TF10 8NB, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints at: EpiCentre, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 167-175
Pigs undergoing an alarming experience may produce olfactory stimuli (pheromones) in their urine, which may have consequences for the welfare of other pigs exposed to these stimuli. Twelve young adult female pigs (gilts) were restrained for 30min in feeding stalls (a potentially alarming experience) and any urine produced was collected. Six gilts had previously experienced the procedure (experienced gilts), and six gilts had not (inexperienced gilts). The gilts' behaviour was recorded over the 30min period. The inexperienced gilts exhibited significantly more escape behaviour (P < 0.001) and less exploratory behaviour (P < 0.05) than those which had prior experience of restraint.
Twelve weaner pigs (30 days old) were subsequently individually exposed to the urine from inexperienced gilts, the urine from experienced gilts and a water control in an open field test. The ambulation score in the open field test was significantly higher (P < 0.01) when weaners were exposed to the urine from inexperienced gilts compared to the other two treatments. The weaners were then presented with a feeder containing feed sprayed with the treatment samples. The weaners took significantly longer to approach the feeder sprayed with the urine from the inexperienced gilts (P < 0.05) and performed significantly more eating bouts (P < 0.05) that were significantly shorter compared with the water control (P < 0.05). Total number of vocalizations (P < 0.01) and grunts (P < 0.05) were significantly greater in those pigs exposed to the inexperienced gilts" urine. These results indicate that urinary alarm pheromones were produced by the inexperienced gilts during restraint in the feeding stall and that these pheromones significantly modified the behaviour of weaner pigs subsequently exposed to them. Exposure to such pheromones is likely to adversely affect the welfare of pigs.
Keywords: alarm pheromones, animal welfare, behaviour, feeding motivation, pigs
ENRICHMENT VALUE OF WOODEN BLOCKS FOR FARMED BLUE FOXES (ALOPEX LAGOPUS)
H Korhonen* and P Niemelä
Agricultural Research Centre of Finland, Fur Farming Research Station, FIN-69100 Kannus, Finland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 177-191
The barren housing conditions of farmed blue foxes (Alopex lagopus) provide few stimuli to motivate exploration and interaction with the physical environment. In the present study, wooden blocks (30x7 cm [lxdia]) were employed to clarify how such inanimate objects might serve to enrich the barren wire-mesh cages. Two separate experiments were carried out. In experiment 1, behavioural reactions of eight male blue foxes to wooden blocks were videotaped between January and May. In experiment 2, 16 male blue foxes were housed singly in cages with wooden blocks and 16 without between January and June. Pencil, confrontation, feeding and open field tests were carried out. Furthermore, 50 female blue foxes were kept singly in cages with wooden blocks and 49 without from January to July. Both groups were bred and the whelping result was recorded. In-cage behavioural tests were performed three times. Results showed that interactions with the wooden blocks were frequent, averaging 77 interactions fox-1 day-1. Interactions with blocks decreased slightly with time. Blocks were mainly used for carrying, chewing, poking and sniffing. In the confrontation test, male foxes housed without blocks were more passive than those with blocks. No differences were found between the groups in the pencil, feeding or open field tests. Whelping success tended to be better for vixens housed with than without blocks. It can be concluded that wooden blocks have enrichment value by providing more choices for foxes in a barren cage and stimulating more variable behaviour.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, enrichment, farm fox, inanimate object
A MOUSE IS NOT JUST A MOUSE
F Sluyter¹* and G A Van Oortmerssen²
1 Department of Psychoneuropharmacology, University of Nijmegen, Geert Grooteplein N 21, P O Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
2 Department of Animal Physiology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 193-205
In this paper we describe the existence and consequences of subspecific and individual variation in the genetic make-up of house mice. The purpose is to illustrate forms of variation that are often neglected in discussions about animal care and experimental design. Towards this end, different inbred mouse strains as well as genetically selected mouse lines are compared in relation to their ecological origin. Firstly, the behaviour of BALB/c, C57BL/6J and CBA mice is described in relation to different habitats. Furthermore, their aggression is compared, as measured by two paradigms. It appears that some inbred lines (eg BALB/c and C57BL/6J) clearly show behaviour that reflects the functional adaptation to the natural habitats in which their ancestors lived. Other strains (eg CBA) show a lack of such behavioural adaptation and their phenotypes appear to be very unstable over time. Secondly, two fundamentally different characters, both present in populations of wild house mice and under genetic control, are described: on the one hand, active copers are characterized by aggressive behaviour; on the other hand, passive copers are reluctant to attack. The active, aggressive animals (manipulators) are well adapted to an invariant environment like their own territory, whereas the passive, non-aggressive copers (adjustors) are well adapted to a changing environment, eg when roaming. We discuss to what extent these coping styles are present in laboratory strains of mice. The major conclusion with regard to both phenomena is that individual and subspecific variation may have significant implications for experimental design and the welfare of the experimental animals.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, behaviour, genetics, inbred lines, mouse
NOCICEPTORS IN THE LEGS OF POULTRY: IMPLICATIONS FOR POTENTIAL PAIN IN PRE-SLAUGHTER SHACKLING
M J Gentle* and V L Tilston
Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9PS, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 227-236
Shackling of commercial poultry involves the insertion of each leg into parallel metal slots and holding the bird inverted for a period of time before stunning and slaughter. Nociceptors signalling noxious stimulation of the skin have been identified in the beak and feathered skin but not in the scaly skin of the leg. The physiological properties of the C-fibre mechano-thermal (CMT) nociceptors in the skin over the tarsometatarsus in the lower leg were studied in response to quantitative mechanical stimulation. The electrical activity was recorded from single C-fibres dissected from the parafibular nerve in anaesthetized animals. The receptive fields of these receptors were small and spot-like, measuring in the region of 1&endash;3 mm in diameter. The threshold to mechanical stimuli ranged from 0.8&endash;15 g using von Frey filaments, and from 3&endash;33 g using a 0.5mm probe mounted on a feedback-controlled stimulator. Stimulus response curves using a ramp-and-hold stimulus were recorded for a number of fibres. After comparing these threshold measurements and the stimulus response data with previous measurements of the force applied to the legs during shackling, it was concluded that shackling is likely to be a very painful procedure.
Keywords: animal welfare, nociception, pain, poultry, shackling, skin nociceptors
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DEGREES OF SOCIAL ISOLATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF WEANED PIGLETS KEPT FOR EXPERIMENTAL PURPOSES
M S Herskin* and K H Jensen
Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Health & Welfare, Research Centre Foulum, P O Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 237-249
The effect of degree of isolation on the behaviour of weaned piglets was investigated using eight replicates of littermates, weaned at 4 weeks and caged for 2 weeks in metabolism chambers under varying degrees of isolation: i) fully isolated without physical contact with littermates; ii) partly isolated with limited physical contact with littermates; or iii) grouped with three littermates. The behaviour of the piglets was video recorded from 0700h&endash;2230h on days 1, 6 and 13 post-weaning. In addition, a test of behavioural reactivity towards a novel environment/object was performed on day 8.
Irrespective of degree, isolation initially increased the occurrence of behavioural indicators of stress such as the frequency of pawing and escape attempts as well as decreasing the frequency of play. In partly isolated piglets this initial response was more active than in fully isolated piglets, indicating an increased frustration with isolation. Within 2 weeks, however, the stress response in partly isolated piglets had almost completely waned, and they showed only a decreased frequency of play behaviour, whereas in fully isolated piglets an increased frequency of pawing as well as a more pronounced reduction of play behaviour were still evident on day 13. Both isolation treatments resulted in markedly lower reactivity in a novel environment, seen as fewer squares crossed and fewer vocalizations.
It is concluded that social isolation of newly weaned piglets is stressful. Although it may increase the initial stress response, provision of social contact with littermates, eg through wire mesh, might limit negative long-term effects of isolation in experiments where data collection requires individual housing.
Keywords: animal welfare, behavioural reactivity, housing, metabolism chamber, novelty, stress
AN EVALUATION OF THE SUITABILITY OF CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS IN GOLDEN-HEADED LION TAMARINS (LEONTOPITHECUS CHRYSOMELAS), WITH EMPHASIS ON MELENGESTROL ACETATE (MGA) IMPLANTS: (I) EFFECTIVENESS, REVERSIBILITY AND MEDICAL SIDE-EFFECTS
K De Vleeschouwer¹,²*, K Leus² and L Van Elsacker¹,²
1 University of Antwerp, Department of Biology, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium
2 Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, K Astridplein 26, B-2018 Antwerp, Belgium
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 251-271
Finding a responsible method of population control that does not compromise animal welfare is a pressing problem for zoological institutions and conservation breeding programmes. This is exemplified by the conservation breeding programme of the golden-headed lion tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysomelas. The number of golden-headed lion tamarins in captivity is currently being limited by, among other means, the use of contraception. We have conducted a study on the effects of contraceptive methods used in golden-headed lion tamarins. Data were collected through the distribution of a survey. The use of Melengestrol acetate (MGA) implants in females was by far the most widespread contraceptive method. It was very effective in preventing reproduction, provided that females were not pregnant at the time of implantation. Pregnancies that had commenced before MGA implantation were carried to term and resulted in viable infants, as far as noted. However, the degree of reversibility was very low and, if females did conceive after MGA implantation, infant survival was lower than expected. The widespread use of MGA implants in golden-headed lion tamarins (and probably other species) should be seriously reconsidered. Alternative methods of population control should be investigated. Possible options include the use of other contraceptive methods, limiting the number of offspring through natural factors and the use of euthanasia under very strict conditions. Animal welfare implications associated with the use of euthanasia are discussed.
Keywords: animal welfare, callitrichids, contraception, euthanasia, golden-headed lion tamarins, population control management
A DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY OF THE RANGE OF INJURIES SUSTAINED AND FARMERS' ATTITUDES TO VULVA BITING IN BREEDING SOWS IN SOUTH-WEST ENGLAND
S Rizvi¹*, C J Nicol¹ and L E Green²
1 Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
2 Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 273-280
The within-farm prevalence of vulva biting in breeding sows in south-west England was investigated using a postal survey sent to 410 pig farmers in January 1997. The response rate was 65 per cent and there were 83 useable replies. The majority of farms where vulva biting was reported indicated a low within-farm prevalence of 1&endash;9 per cent of sows affected, although prevalences as high as 30&endash;60 per cent were reported. The injuries reported ranged from bleeding to removal of the whole vulva, the most commonly reported injuries being bleeding and superficial damage to the vulva. No long-term effects from this injury to service and dry sows were reported by 70 per cent and 76 per cent of farmers respectively. Competition for food, aggressive sows, closeness to farrowing and mixing of sows were the most common reasons suggested by these farmers as causes of vulva biting.
Keywords: animal welfare, sow, vulva biting
MODULATION OF AGGRESSION IN MALE MICE: INFLUENCE OF CAGE CLEANING REGIME AND SCENT MARKS
P L P Van Loo1*, C L J J Kruitwagen², L F M Van Zutphen¹, J M Koolhaas³ and V Baumans¹
1 Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Utrecht University, P O Box 80166, 3504 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
2 Centre for Biostatistics, Utrecht University, Padualaan 14, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
3 Department of Animal Physiology, University of Groningen, P O Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 281-295
Group housing of male laboratory mice often leads to welfare problems due to aggressive behaviour. From a welfare perspective, individual housing is not a preferred solution to these problems &endash; and so we sought other ways of reducing aggression between male mice. Aggression peaks after disturbances such as cage cleaning. Transfer of olfactory cues during cage cleaning procedures has been repeatedly proposed as a means of reducing these peaks in aggression. In this study, the aggression-modulating properties of olfactory cues were studied by investigating the effects of their source and distribution on aggression after cage cleaning in groups of male BALB/c mice. The physiological effects of aggression on individuals within a group were also monitored.
Our results indicated that neither kinship nor distribution of urine marks affected aggression. Olfactory cues from nesting and bedding material, however, affected aggression to a marked degree: transfer of nesting material reduced aggression significantly, while transfer of sawdust containing urine and faeces seemed to intensify aggression. None of the physiological data revealed any differences between dominant and subordinate animals, nor any correlations with aggressiveness, except that dominant animals gained weight more rapidly than subordinate ones. We conclude that the transfer of nesting material will reduce aggression, or at least slow down its development, and thus aid the reduction of social tension due to cage cleaning.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, kinship, mice, nesting material, olfactory cues
EVALUATION OF WELFARE INDICATORS FOR THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT IN CATTLE HERDS
T Jóhannesson¹* and J T Sørensen²
1 Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, Groennegaardsvej 8, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
2 Danish Institute of Agricultural Science, Department of Animal Health and Welfare, P O Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 297-316
The social environment is very important for the welfare of animals in loose housing dairy production systems. This article reviews recent literature on the effect of animal density (AD) and regrouping (RG) on the welfare of cattle and describes the development of feasible indicators for the social environment. Special emphasis is given to the methodological problems that arise when AD and RG are used as welfare indicators in a welfare assessment at the herd level. Various factors affecting estimates of AD were considered, including the size of the animals, correction for very high AD values, pen shape and how best to aggregate the results at herd level and over time. The examination of RG is centred around the effect of early social experience of the animals, the stability of social relationships, and the effect of pen changes.
A range of parameters is suggested for the evaluation of AD and RG as possible welfare indicators. These are based on observational data from 10 Danish dairy herds and related to clinical records from the herd farms. It is concluded that mean AD is not feasible as a welfare indicator at the herd level but the 25th percentile of AD corrected for the liveweight of the animals should be used instead. The two most promising parameters for evaluation of RG are the frequency of combined pen and group changes for a sample of the herd, and the probability of a certain duration of inter-animal relationships. Results from clinical observations correlated with neither AD nor RG.
Keywords: animal density, animal welfare, pen changes, regrouping, space
POST-RELEASE SURVIVAL OF HAND-REARED TAWNY OWLS (STRIX ALUCO)
J A Bennett and A D Routh*
RSPCA Stapeley Grange Wildlife Hospital, London Road, Stapeley, Nantwich, Cheshire, CW5 7JW, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints at: 24 Bridge Street, Wybunbury, Nantwich, Cheshire CW5 7NE, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 317-321
The post-release survival of hand-reared tawny owls, Strix aluco, was studied. Hand-rearing did not appear to affect the birds' instinctive behaviour or post-release survival. The recovery of several pellets confirmed that hunting in this species is an innate process. In terms of animal welfare, hand-reared tawny owls do not appear to be at a disadvantage when compared with wild juveniles, indicating that current rearing and release practices are effective.
Keywords: animal welfare, hand-reared, instincts, juvenile, survival, tawny owls
ZOO ANIMALS AND THEIR HUMAN AUDIENCES:WHAT IS THE VISITOR EFFECT?
G R Hosey
Bolton Primate Research Team, Biology and Environmental Studies, Bolton Institute, Deane Road, Bolton BL3 5AB, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 343-357
The presence of human visitors has been shown to affect the behaviour of several different mammalian species in a number of different zoos, but the behavioural changes observed are not always consistent with a simple 'stressful influence' explanation. Data for non-primate species are too sparse to draw meaningful conclusions; but for primates, the evidence reviewed in this paper allows several hypotheses to be tested. Neither a social facilitation nor an audience attraction hypothesis can be generally supported by the available studies. However, these studies are consistent with a general stressful influence hypothesis, although the extent of this influence is itself affected by other variables, notably species and housing differences. There is some evidence that chronic exposure to human audiences may lessen this stressful influence in some species; and in certain circumstances (notably where some members of the public throw food) the effect of the audience is almost an enriching one.
Keywords: animal welfare, audience effect, humans, primates, zoo visitors
A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE SUITABILITY OF DIFFERENT SPECIES AS COMPANION ANIMALS
C A Schuppli* and D Fraser
Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 4: 359-372
Municipal regulations and humane movement policies often restrict or discourage the use of 'exotic' species as companion animals. However, confusion arises because the term "exotic" is used in various ways, and because classifying species as exotic or non-exotic does not satisfactorily distinguish suitable from unsuitable companion animals. Even among commonly kept species, some appear to be much more suitable than others. Instead, decisions about suitable companion animal species need to be based on a number of relevant issues. As ethical criteria, we considered that keeping a companion animal should not jeopardize - and ideally should enhance - its welfare, as well as that of its owner; and that keeping a companion animal should not incur any appreciable harm or risk of harm to the community or the environment. These criteria then served as the basis for identifying and organizing the various concerns that may arise over keeping a species for companionship. Concerns include how the animals are procured and transported, how well their needs can be met in captivity, whether the animal poses any danger to others, and whether the animal might cause environmental damage. These concerns were organized into a checklist of questions that form a basis for assigning species to five proposed categories reflecting their suitability as companion animals. This assessment framework could be used in creating policy or regulations, and to create educational and decision-making tools for pet retailers, animal adoption workers, and potential owners, to help prevent animals from being placed in unsuitable circumstances.
Keywords: animal welfare, companion animals, ethics, exotic animals, pet animals, pet ownership
THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT ON LEARNING IN PIGS
I A Sneddon¹*, V E Beattie², L Dunne¹ and W Neil¹
1 School of Psychology, The Queen's University of Belfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland
2 Agricultural Research Institute of Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, Co Down, BT26 6DR, Northern Ireland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 4: 373-383
This study examined the effects of enriching the environment on the learning abilities of growing pigs. Eighty-four pigs were housed in either barren or enriched environments from birth to 14 weeks. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing and the enriched environments incorporated extra space, including areas which contained peat and straw in a rack. The learning abilities of pigs from both environments were tested at 15-17 weeks using an operant task which involved pigs learning to push a panel for a reward and a maze test which involved spatial learning. Pigs from enriched environments learned both the operant task and the maze task more rapidly than their counterparts from barren environments. These results suggest that the cognitive development of pigs may be impaired in intensive housing systems.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, learning, pigs
AN EVALUATION OF THE SUITABILITY OF CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS IN GOLDEN-HEADED LION TAMARINS (LEONTOPITHECUS CHRYSOMELAS), WITH EMPHASIS ON MELENGESTROL ACETATE (MGA) IMPLANTS: (II) ENDOCRINOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS
K De Vleeschouwer¹,²*, L Van Elsacker¹,², M Heistermann³ and K Leus²
1 University of Antwerp, Department of Biology, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium
2 Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, K Astridplein 26, B-2018 Antwerp, Belgium
3 German Primate Centre, Division of Reproductive Biology, Kellnerweg 4, D-37077 G...;ttingen, Germany
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 4: 385-401
In order to be suitable, a contraceptive method should have little or no effects on social organization or behaviour. In callitrichids, changes in socio-sexual interactions between group members, due to hormonal changes induced by contraception, may have consequences for the reproductive inhibition of offspring in their natal group. This may lead to an increased rate of inbreeding. In this paper we report on the endocrinological and behavioural effects of contraception in golden-headed lion tamarins, using data obtained through a world survey and an observational study. Hormonal analysis of urinary oestrone conjugate levels in melengestrol acetate (MGA)-implanted females confirmed earlier preliminary findings (Van Elsacker et al 1994): MGA implants inhibited reproduction through the suppression of ovulation and regular ovarian cycles in the implanted female, while the occurrence of ovarian cycles in the oldest female offspring of each group was not affected. Sexual interactions between the dominant adults still occurred but underwent temporal changes. Reproductive inhibition in female offspring was maintained. Social interactions between group members altered in a non-consistent way but did not have an impact on the stability of the study groups during the study. In principle, MGA implants do not have a detrimental impact on the behaviour of group members. The suitability of MGA implants from a behavioural point of view depends on the extent to which those involved wish to preserve the entire range of natural behaviours for this species. The behavioural effects of other contraceptive methods are still largely unknown.
Keywords: animal welfare, callitrichids, contraception, golden-headed lion tamarins, population control management, reproductive inhibition
EFFECTS OF GROUP HOUSING IN AN ENLARGED CAGE SYSTEM ON GROWTH, BITE WOUNDS AND ADRENAL CORTEX FUNCTION IN FARMED BLUE FOXES (ALOPEX LAGOPUS)
L Ahola*, M Harri, S Kasanen, J Mononen and T Pyyk...;
Institute of Applied Biotechnology, University of Kuopio, PO Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 4: 403-412
It has been claimed that the present farming environment does not meet foxes' needs for social behaviour. In this study we measured the welfare of farmed blue foxes, Alopex lagopus, housed in two different social and spatial conditions: i) traditional housing (group T) where a male and a female cub were housed together and their vixen alone in standard (1.2m2) fox cages; and ii) family housing (group F) where a vixen and her five cubs were housed together in a connected six-cage system (7.2m2). Production-related welfare parameters (weight gain and the incidence of bite wounds on fur) as well as physiological ones (adrenal mass and serum cortisol response to ACTH administration) were measured in these two groups.
No differences were found in any of the measured parameters between the vixens housed in traditional and family units. In cubs, there was less difference between the sexes in weight gain in group F than in group T, and a significantly lower weight gain was evident only in group T female cubs. The serum cortisol level in response to an ACTH challenge was higher in group T cubs and independent of the sex of the animal, while heavier adrenals were observed in group T male cubs only. We conclude that the enlarged cage system combined with group housing had some beneficial effects on the measured performance- and welfare-related indicators in blue fox cubs.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, bite wounds, fur farming, social behaviour
THE LOCOMOTION OF DAIRY COWS IN PASSAGEWAYS WITH DIFFERENT LIGHT INTENSITIES
C J C Phillips ¹,²*, I D Morris², C A Lomas² and S J Lockwood²
1 Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
2 School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 4: 421-431
Guidelines for the housing of dairy cows do not address the provision of supplementary lighting in passageways, other than for inspection of the animals. Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether lighting passageways to various intensities influenced the locomotion of dairy cows. The first experiment compared the locomotion of dairy cows in a dark or lighted passageway as they walked back to their accommodation from milking. When the passageway was dark, the cows took shorter but more rapid steps - which probably increased their stability. In the second experiment, cows walked down a cubicle passageway to receive a food reward, with the light intensity in the building varying from 0-250 lux. Step length and stepping rate were recorded, as well as the angles of the cows' leg joints (which were measured from video recordings). Once again, the cows increased their stepping rate in the dark, and this resulted in an increased walking rate, perhaps because they wished to return more rapidly to other members of their group and found the darkness aversive. In addition, the arcs of travel of the metacarpophalangeal joint and of the fore- and hindfeet angles to the floor were reduced in the dark, probably increasing the cows' stability, and were greatest at 119 lux. The slowest walking rate was observed at 39 lux. Hence, the optimum illumination for dairy cow locomotion may lie approximately between 39 and 119 lux, as measured by our technique.
We conclude that during locomotion in dark passageways cows have to modify their walking behaviour significantly, so that the provision of at least a low level of lighting is desirable at night.
Keywords: animal welfare, dairy cow, light intensity, locomotion
CONCLUDING STUDIES ON THE FAILURES OF ELECTRICAL LANCING OF WHALES
G R G Barnes¹* and P Madié²
1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, and Cetacean Investigation Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
2 Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, and Cetacean Investigation Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 2000, 4: 433-441
Electrocution of an animal is inhumane if it is not rendered instantaneously insensible by the application of sufficient current density within vital centres of the brain. Application of electric current which does not achieve this, is likely to cause severe pain. The humane aspects of electrical lancing have aroused widespread concern and debate.
For an electrically lanced whale of the size of those currently hunted, previous research has indicated that the current densities produced in the heart and brain are unlikely to reliably render the animal insensible or stop its heart. This study supports these findings and demonstrates that the presence of salt water/immersion may further reduce current densities. Evidence for the failure of the electric lance includes the necessity for multiple and prolonged applications of electric current.
Reasons for the failure of the electric lance include non-optimal current injection sites, insufficient current injected, the presence of salt water, and the trauma caused by the explosive harpoon. The efficacy of the electric lance may be falsely exaggerated for reasons associated with blood loss and misdiagnosis of death. All evidence clearly indicates that attempts to stop the heart by electrocution will cause severe pain to an already traumatized animal.
We suggest that the use of the electric lance is clearly inhumane, and are pleased to announce that its use in Japanese whaling operations was reportedly discontinued as from 1997.
Keywords: animal welfare, electric lance, euthanasia, whales
