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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 15 Abstracts
The application of Russell and Burch’ Three Rs in commercial livestock experimentation
IG Colditz
Abstract
The inclusion of Russell and Burch's Three Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement) in guidelines, codes of practice and law reflects their current position as the guiding principles of ethical assessment of research involving animals. This article explores some activities within the contemporary livestock industry that constitute the experimental use of animals on a local and global scale. The elucidation of correlated responses during trait selection in genetic improvement programs provides one example of experiments occurring within the commercial livestock industry. This experimentation is largely conducted without scrutiny of its conformity to the Three Rs. Experimentation to improve the management of the livestock industry is consistent with the principle of refinement, and experimentation to increase productivity per unit of livestock is consistent with the principle of reduction; however, experimentation to increase total livestock production conflicts with the principle of replacement. Some approaches regarding the appraisal of the ethics of research involving animals, which could avoid arbitrary boundaries associated with the location or purpose of experimentation, are considered together with the relationship between experimentation and other anthropogenic impacts on animals.
Keywords: animal welfare, consequentialism, deontology, experimentation, genetic selection, livestock
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The effects of amount and frequency of alternating current used in water bath stunning and of slaughter methods on electroencephalograms in broilers
ABM Raj, M O’Callaghan and TG Knowles
Abstract
The effectiveness of electrical water bath stunning of 172 individual broilers for 1 s with a constant root mean square (RMS) current of 100, 150 or 200 mA, delivered using a variable voltage/constant current stunner with 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200 or 1400 Hz sine wave alternating current (AC), followed by slaughter using a unilateral or ventral neck-cutting procedure, was evaluated. A binary logistic regression of broilers showing epileptiform activity or not following stunning showed that both the electrical frequency (Hz) and RMS current (mA) had a significant effect on the probability of the electroencephalogram (EEG) manifestation. The univariate analysis of variance showed that the time to the onset of less than 10% of the pre-stun relative power contents was significantly affected only by the interaction between electrical frequency and slaughter method. A similar analysis of variance of the time to reach less than 10% of the pre-stun total power content showed slaughter method, RMS current, the slaughter method/frequency interaction and the RMS current/frequency interaction to be either significant or approaching significance. Based on these results it is recommended that effective water bath stunning of broilers with a minimum constant current of 100, 150 and 200 mA could be achieved with electrical frequencies of up to 200, 600 and 800 Hz, respectively. In addition, It is likely that electrical frequencies of above 800 Hz would have required a minimum current of greater than 200 mA to induce epileptiform activity in the EEGs of broilers.
Keywords: animal welfare, chicken, EEG, electrical stunning, frequency, slaughter
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The effects of amount and frequency of pulsed direct current used in water bath stunning and of slaughter methods on spontaneous electroencephalograms in broilers
ABM Raj, M O’Callaghan and SI Hughes
Abstract
The effectiveness of electrical water bath stunning of broilers (n = 96) for 1 s with a constant average current of 100, 150 or 200 mA delivered using a variable voltage/constant current stunner with 200, 800 or 1400 Hz pulsed direct current (DC), with a mark:space ratio of 1:1, followed by slaughter using a unilateral or ventral neck cutting procedure, was evaluated. The results of a binary logistic model showed that both the electrical frequency and average current had significant effects on the probability of inducing epileptiform electroencephalogram (EEG) and therefore, of effective stunning. The results of univariate analysis showed that only slaughter method had highly significant effects on the power contents in the 13–30 Hz and 2–30 Hz EEG frequency bands. Based on these results, it is recommended that a minimum of 200 mA average (400 mA peak) current per bird should be delivered using 200 Hz pulsed DC, with a mark:space ratio of 1:1, to achieve effective water bath stunning in 80% of broilers. Frequencies of above 200 Hz pulsed DC would presumably require average currents of greater than 200 mA. Electrical water bath stunning of broilers with 200 mA average current of 200 Hz resulted in cardiac arrest in six out of eight broilers that showed epileptiform activity. Two other broilers that had cardiac arrest showed no epileptiform EEGs indicative of effective stunning. Owing to the prevalence of cardiac arrest in conscious broilers, the use of pulsed DC for water bath stunning of broilers could be questioned on ethical and bird welfare grounds.
Keywords: animal welfare, chicken, EEG, electrical stunning, frequency, slaughter
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The effects of pulse width of a direct current used in water bath stunning and of slaughter methods on spontaneous electroencephalograms in broilers
ABM Raj, M O’Callaghan and SI Hughes
Abstract
The effect of the pulse width of a direct current (DC) on the effectiveness of electrical water bath stunning, and slaughter, was evaluated in broilers (n = 29). Broilers were individually stunned in a water bath for 1 s with a constant peak current of 400 mA of 200 Hz DC delivered using a variable voltage/constant current stunner. The pulse width of the 200 Hz DC was set at 0.5, 1.5 or 2.5 ms (10, 30 or 50% of 5 ms current cycle). The results showed that pulse width had a significant effect on the incidence of epileptiform activity in the electroencephalograms (EEGs). A pulse width of 10% of the current cycle was less effective than pulse widths of 30 and 50% of the current cycle; there was no significant difference between a pulse width of 30 and 50%. The results of a univariate analysis showed that ventral neck-cutting resulted in a significantly shorter time to the onset of less than 10% of the pre-stun power contents in the 13–30 Hz and 2–30 Hz EEG frequency bands when compared with unilateral neck-cutting. It is concluded that a pulse width of 30 or 50% of the current cycle of 200 Hz DC, delivering 400 mA peak current, was better than using a pulse width of 10% of the current cycle.
Keywords: animal welfare, chicken, EEG, electrical stunning, pulse width, slaughter
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The effect of routine experimental procedures on physiological parameters in mice kept under different husbandry conditions
MK Meijer, K Kramer, R Remie, BM Spruijt, LFM van Zutphen and V Baumans
Abstract
Laboratory animals are frequently subjected to routine procedures, such as injections or the withdrawal of blood samples. Acute stress caused by such procedures is associated with physiological changes that can have a strong impact on experimental results. This study investigated the integrated effects of cage enrichment, social housing and handling on the acute stress response of animals subjected to routine experimental procedures. Female mice of two inbred strains (BALB/c and C57BL/6) were housed under either minimal husbandry conditions (MH: no cage enrichment, infrequent handling and a period of individual housing) or enriched husbandry conditions (EH: with cage enrichment, frequent handling and social housing at all times). One mouse in each cage was implanted with a radio-telemetry transmitter for measuring heart rate (HR) and body temperature (BT). The animals were subjected to intraperitoneal injections or short periods of restraint. In addition to telemetry measurements, thymus weight and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) activity were assessed. It was found that individual housing under MH conditions, as compared with social housing under EH conditions, elevated both basal HR and BT, and significantly elevated the relative recovery time following routine experimental procedures. Thymus weight and TH activity suggested a long-term stress response under MH conditions following individual housing, although the influence of transmitter implantation and (repeated) acute stress remains to be investigated. The results emphasise that husbandry conditions should be taken into account when evaluating physiological measures after routine procedures.
Keywords: animal welfare, husbandry conditions, mice, radio-telemetry, routine procedures, stress response
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Group housing of farmed silver fox cubs
L Ahola, J Mononen, T Pyykönen and M Miskala
Abstract
In the present study, the effects of social environment on the welfare of farmed silver fox cubs were clarified. After weaning, cubs from silver fox litters were housed (1) singly, (2) in litters until the end of September and thereafter singly, or (3) in litters throughout their growing season. Separating the cubs at the onset of the species’ natural dispersal time may not be strictly beneficial for the cubs because it may limit the animals’ possibilities to fulfil their needs for social behaviour. However, the lower incidence of bite wounds in both the single housed cubs and the cubs from litters that were split in autumn showed some beneficial effects of separating the cubs. The cubs that were group housed in litters for the whole time were focussed on their own social system, were more averse to human presence and showed greater responses to acute stress than the cubs that were single housed for at least part of the time. However, the serum cortisol level following adrenocorticotropic hormone administration suggested that cubs that were group housed in litters were less stressed over the long-term compared with the cubs that were single housed for at least part of the time; the low incidence of stereotypic behaviour in the cubs raised in litters also supports this hypothesis. Accordingly, and despite some unsolved questions regarding interpretation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, the results from this present study show that social contacts were important for the welfare of silver fox cubs, and suggest that farmed silver fox cubs could possibly be raised in litters without jeopardising their welfare or deteriorating their fur quality.
Keywords: ACTH test, animal welfare, group housing, physiology, silver fox, stereotypies
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Reducing the number of animals used in behavioural genetic experiments using chromosome substitution strain
MC Laarakker, F Ohl and HA van Lith
Abstract
Chromosome substitution strains (also called consomic lines or strains) are strains in which a single, full-length chromosome from one inbred strain — the donor strain — has been transferred onto the genetic background of a second inbred strain — the host strain. Based on the results obtained from behavioural tests with the two parental strains, the minimum number of animals from each of the host and consomic strains that are required for a successful behavioural genetic analysis can be estimated. Correct application of statistical knowledge can lead to a further reduction in the number of animals used in behavioural genetic experiments using chromosome substitution strains.
Keywords: animal welfare, behavioural genetics, chromosome substitution strain, mice, QTL, reduction
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Immediate immobilisation of a Minke whale using a grenade harpoon requires striking a restricted target area
TG Knowles and A Butterworth
Abstract
Approximately 1500 Minke whales are killed annually under permit from the International Whaling Commission (IWC). This hunt supports a modest industry in Norway and in Japan; however, the welfare of whales during hunting and killing is such a cause of concern that in 1980 the IWC formed a sub-group entitled ‘Working Group on Whale Killing Methods and Associated Welfare Issues’ devoted to discussing the issue. This commentary suggests that, when using the Norwegian penthrite grenade-tipped harpoon (‘Whalegrenade-99’), it is necessary to hit a relatively well-defined target area in order to effect an immediately immobile, and presumed unconscious state in the Minke whale.
Keywords: animal welfare, grenade, harpoon, hunt, killing, Minke whale
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The effectiveness of environmental enrichment on reducing stereotypic behaviour in two captive vicugna (Vicugna vicugna)
M Parker, D Goodwin, E Redhead and H Mitchell
Abstract
Environmental enrichment by increasing foraging behaviour and providing food item choice are widely practised and generally accepted as effective methods for reducing stereotypic behaviour in captive animals. In this study, the effectiveness of increasing foraging patch choice and food item choice on reducing motor stereotypy in two captive vicugna were examined. For the purposes of the study, first, browse was added to the vicugna’s enclosure as an additional forage item and, second, the vicugna’s normal feed was divided: half being provided in the indoor quarters and half in the outdoor yard. The results revealed that providing browse as an additional forage item increased the observed stereotypic behaviour; however, dividing the vicugna’s feed, and therefore increasing forage patch choice, decreased stereotypy. This study was limited because of the small sample size and because the area in which the vicugna were performing stereotypic behaviour was partially visually obscured. However, this study has implications for animal welfare because it highlights the need to evaluate the suitability of foraging enrichment items, and suggests that more research into accommodating the adaptive foraging behaviour of this species in captivity may be necessary.
Keywords: animal welfare, endangered, foraging, stereotypy, Vicugna vicugna, zoo animals
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The effect of handling under anaesthetic on the recapture rate of wild ship rats (Rattus rattus)
DM Prout and CM King
Abstract
This paper describes a two-part study of small predators in New Zealand forests. First, during 12 days of live-trapping, 31 wild ship rats were captured, tagged and released: 9 were handled while anaesthetised using halothane and 22 were handled while conscious using gloves. There was a significant difference between the two groups of ship rats in live-recapture rate: 4 out of 9 rats that had been handled while anaesthetised were recaptured alive, compared with 0 of 22 that were handled while conscious. Second, during 12 days of removal-trapping, 23 ship rats were killed, of which 6 were tagged, including 4 of the 9 that had been previously handled while anaesthetised (2 of which had also been recaptured alive during the live-trapping) and 2 that had previously been handled while conscious. These observations have implications for the statistical estimation of population density from capture-mark-recapture data and for the development of protocols for minimising stress in captured animals, especially nocturnal species released from traps in daylight.
Keywords: anaesthesia, animal welfare, capture probability, Rattus rattus, ship rat, trap avoidance
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Expert opinion regarding environmental enrichment materials for pigs
MBM Bracke
Abstract
The aim of this article is to report on the expert opinion regarding the provision of environmental enrichment for pigs. A questionnaire was sent to 53 pig welfare scientists who were asked to specify which enrichment materials they considered sufficient to ensure pig welfare; 68% responded. 89% stated that providing a chain was not sufficient, while 84% stated that the provision of straw could be sufficient. ‘Sustained animal-material interactions’, ‘rootability’, ‘manipulability’ and ‘chewability’ were the main material properties referred to as being required for enriching pig pens. Areas of further research suggested by the respondents encompassed both fundamental and applied research, including preference tests and demand studies, deprivation studies and quantitative studies to determine cut-off points. A case is made for modelling the available knowledge to help close the gap between what is known in science and what is decided in society regarding animal welfare and environmental enrichment for pigs.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, EU, housing, pigs, questionnaire
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Refinement of the use of non-human primates in scientific research.
Part I: the influence of humans
A E Rennie and H M Buchanan-Smith
Abstract
The welfare of non-human primates used in scientific research must be safeguarded to promote scientific validity and for ethical reasons. Welfare can be improved by the refinement of practice, particularly if these refinements are applied to every aspect of the life of an animal used in the laboratory, from birth to death with the aim of both minimising harm and maximising well-being. Many refinement methods have been described in nationally and internationally accepted guidelines on laboratory practice, but awareness of these guidelines is not universal. In Part I of this review, we examine the influence of humans on non-human primates and summarise and evaluate methods of refinement that are or could be used to reduce suffering and improve welfare. In particular we focus on staff selection, education and training, human–animal bonds, staff communication, and training primates. In Parts II and III, refinements of housing, husbandry and experimental procedures are reviewed.
Keywords: animal welfare, human–animal bonds, positive reinforcement training, refinement, staff education, staff selection
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Refinement of the use of non-human primates in scientific research.
Part II: housing, husbandry and acquisition
AE Rennie and HM Buchanan-Smith
Abstract
In order to safeguard the welfare of laboratory-housed non-human primates, refinement techniques should be applied to every aspect of the life of animals used in the laboratory, from birth to death, with the aim of both minimising harm and maximising wellbeing. In this second part of a three-part review we summarise published information on housing and husbandry practices, and describe ways to minimise contingent inhumanity associated with the use of primates in laboratories and their breeding and supply (where inhumanity is defined as the infliction of distress). We also discuss methods by which the welfare of these animals can be maximised on a day-to-day basis. The principles of enrichment, aspects of the housing environment, social and physical enrichment and acquisition are discussed. Refinement of the influence of humans and experimental procedures are discussed in Parts I and III of this review, respectively.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental and social enrichment, housing, husbandry, refinement, transportation
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Refinement of the use of non-human primates in scientific research.
Part III: refinement of procedures
AE Rennie and HM Buchanan-Smith
Abstract
There is an ethical and scientific need to minimise the harm experienced by animals used in scientific procedures and to maximise their wellbeing. Welfare can be improved by the refinement of practice, particularly if these refinements are applied to every aspect of the life of an animal used in the laboratory, from birth to death. Primates are considered likely to have a greater capacity for suffering than other sentient species and therefore refinement of their use is particularly important. The refinement of the human impact on laboratory-housed primates and of housing and husbandry practices are dealt with in parts I and II of this three-part review. In part III, methods of refinement that can be applied specifically to the use of primates in procedures, are summarised and discussed, together with a description of some current practices, and the scientific evidence that suggests that they should no longer be used. Methods of refinement of identification, capture and restraint, sampling, administration of substances, humane endpoints, and euthanasia are included. If these methods are used, taking into account species-specific differences and needs, it is concluded that harm can be minimised and primate welfare improved.
Keywords: animal welfare, non-human primates, refinement, scientific procedures, identification, humane end-points
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The welfare and suitability of parrots as companion animals: a review
M Engebretson
Abstract
In recent years there has been an increased interest in studies related to the welfare of avian species commonly kept as companion animals, specifically those in the order Psittaciformes, commonly referred to as ‘parrots’. During this time the biology and behaviour of wild parrots has also become better understood, aiding the assessment of welfare in captive environments. The impact of the pet trade on wild parrot populations has also become clear. This order now has more globally threatened species than almost any other major group of birds. Many significant aspects of parrot behaviour in the wild, such as flocking, social interaction with conspecifics, foraging on a variety of foods and flight, are denied to varying degrees to parrots kept as companion animals. Captive parrots show high levels of stereotypy, suggesting poor welfare. Welfare may be improved by appropriate environmental enrichment and changes in the social environment of captive parrots kept as companion animals; however, such changes require that caretakers have sufficient knowledge, resources and motivation to accommodate such conditions. The concept of companion animal suitability is an important consideration when developing regulations or policy aimed at improving the welfare of animals kept as companions. Although individual exceptions exist and the level of suitability may vary depending on species, in general, their presence in the pet trade has resulted in serious animal welfare and conservation challenges for parrots, indicating that these animals may be unsuitable as human companions.
Keywords: animal welfare, captive parrots, captive wildlife, companion animals, pet ownership, pet trade
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A review of the welfare consequences of surgical castration in piglets and the evaluation of non-surgical methods
A Prunier, M Bonneau, EH von Borell, S Cinotti, M Gunn, B Fredriksen,
M Giersing, DB Morton, FAM Tuyttens and A Velarde
Abstract
Male piglets are castrated primarily to prevent the unpleasant odours and flavours of entire male pig meat (boar-taint). Although castration can be legally performed without analgesia in the first seven days of life, available evidence shows that castration at any age is painful and may have a detrimental influence on health. Few anaesthetics or analgesics are licensed for use in piglets .The known methods for general and epidural anaesthesia cannot be run at the farm level for practical and/or legal reasons. Use of the local anaesthesia lidocaine is easy and allows the pain resulting from castration to be alleviated. Local destruction of testicular tissue by intra-testicular injection of chemical compounds (salts and acids) is an alternative to surgical castration but needs further investigation regarding welfare improvement and boar taint reduction. Immunocastration, by which castration is achieved using active immunisation (anti–GnRH immunisation) is an efficient alternative to surgical castration; however, there are no licensed vaccines in the EU and the consequences, in terms of pig welfare as well as its acceptability among EU consumers, need further evaluation.
Keywords: animal welfare, immunisation, non-surgical castration, pain, piglet, surgical castration
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Influence of teeth resection on the skin temperature and acute phase response in newborn piglets
S Llamas Moya, LA Boyle, PB Lynch and S Arkins
Abstract
Two experiments were carried out to determine the effect of different teeth resection methods on skin temperature, concentrations of the acute phase proteins C–reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid A (SAA), and cortisol in piglets. In Experiment 1, piglets from 60 litters were assigned to three treatments where the ‘needle’ teeth were clipped (CLIP), ground (GRIND) or left intact (INT) within 12 h of birth; skin temperature was measured immediately afterwards. Fourteen pigs were selected in each treatment for blood sampling at 1 day and 29 days-of-age for the determination of concentrations of CRP, SAA and cortisol. In Experiment 2, a 2 × 2 factorial design was used to determine the effect of teeth clipping and time spent out of the farrowing crate post-clipping on skin temperature. Piglets from 60 litters had their teeth clipped (CLIP) or left intact (INT) and were returned to the farrowing crate immediately or after 1 min. Skin temperature was measured after piglets were returned to the farrowing crate and after 10 min. In Experiment 1, CLIP and GRIND piglets had significantly lower skin temperatures than INT piglets; skin temperature was also significantly reduced in CLIP piglets in Experiment 2. Skin temperature did not differ between time-out groups. Plasma levels of CRP and SAA did not differ between treatments on day 1; however, concentrations of both proteins were significantly higher on day 29. CLIP pigs had significantly higher concentrations of CRP in comparison with GRIND pigs on day 29. Stress caused by teeth resection provoked a transient reduction in skin temperature. Furthermore, both resection methods caused infection and/or inflammation, but to a similar degree as that caused by leaving the teeth intact. These results indicate that the welfare of piglets is better in the short term if their teeth are left intact; however, if teeth resection is necessary grinding can be recommended in preference to clipping.
Keywords: acute phase proteins, animal welfare, cortisol, pigs, skin temperature, teeth resection
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The welfare of low-volume farm animals during transport and at slaughter: a review of current knowledge and recommendations for future research
HLI Bornett-Gauci, JE Martin and DR Arney
Abstract
Meat from low-volume farm animals such as farmed deer and wild boar is currently widely available to the consumer within the UK. Despite a rapid growth in production of these species there is a paucity of research that focuses on their welfare. This paper reviews the current literature and legislation relating to the transport and slaughter of farmed deer, wild boar, ostriches, buffalo and bison in order to identify priorities for future research. Research on low-volume farm animals has focused on red deer and their welfare is safeguarded with comprehensive legislation and guidelines. Studies have indicated the importance of appropriately designed facilities and sympathetic handling of red deer to ensure humane slaughter with minimal stress. However, the impact of transport and slaughter on the welfare of other deer species has not been recorded and this should be recognised. Much research has been conducted on the welfare of ostriches during transport and at slaughter. However, many of the results are discordant and research is required to clarify, in particular, posture during transport and stunning methods. Research on the welfare of wild boar, buffalo and bison is scarce. Best practice for both transport and slaughter of these species needs further research and clarification within legislation. For the low-volume species discussed in this review, priorities for further research include (1) appropriate methods of handling to minimise stress during transport and slaughter; (2) identification/clarification of appropriate slaughter methods and (3) training of transport and abattoir personnel in handling and slaughter methods.
Keywords: animal welfare, deer, wild boar, ostrich, buffalo, bison, slaughter, transport
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The effect of cover on food consumption and growth in two freshwater fish species used in experimental studies
RJ Wootton, N Handisyde and C Rowe
Abstract
To define suitable holding conditions for fish used in experimental studies on food consumption and growth, the effect of cover on growth at two ration levels was quantified for immature individuals of two common, freshwater species: the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus: Gasterosteidae) and the European minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus: Cyprinidae). In the European minnow, the presence of cover significantly increased growth rates and also the rate of food consumption at ad libitum rations; however, cover had no significant effect on the growth of the threespine stickleback. In both species, fish fed ad libitum rations had higher growth rates than fish fed 4% of body weight per day. This study illustrates the need for species specific holding conditions and illustrates an approach to welfare using measurements of traits closely related to fitness.
Key words: animal welfare, appetite, condition, European minnow, specific growth rate, threespine stickleback
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Comparison of halal slaughter with captive bolt stunning and neck cutting in cattle: exsanguination and quality parameters
MH Anil, T Yesildere, H Aksu, E Matur, JL McKinstry, HR Weaver,
O Erdogan, S Hughes and C Mason
Abstract
Supporters of religious slaughter methods claim that efficiency of bleed-out is adversely affected by stunning. Our previous study carried out in sheep at an abattoir comparing the Muslim method of slaughter without stunning with pre-slaughter stunning using a captive bolt or by electrical methods concluded that bleed-out is not adversely affected by stunning, nor improved by a neck cut without stunning. In this paper, a similar study carried out in cattle is reported. In this study, captive bolt stunning followed by neck cutting was compared with the Muslim slaughter method without stunning. The total blood loss, percentage blood loss expressed as a percentage of live weight and percentage loss of estimated total blood were calculated and compared between each group. In addition, the time periods taken to reach 25, 50, 75 and 90% of total blood loss were also calculated. There was no significant difference between the two stunning groups for any of these blood loss variables. The results, subjected to statistical analyses, also showed no apparent difference in the PCV levels and meat quality parameters between treatments. These results confirm the findings with sheep and show that the bleed-out is not adversely affected by captive bolt stunning, nor improved by a neck cut without stunning in cattle. It is anticipated that these findings may help promote the use of stunning methods during Halal slaughter.
Keywords: animal welfare, halal slaughter, blood loss, stunning
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Can non-invasive glucocorticoid measures be used as reliable indicators of stress in animals?
J Lane
Abstract
Refinement techniques are being increasingly employed in all fields of animal research to try to ensure that the highest standards of welfare are upheld. This review concerns one of the main emerging techniques for the assessment of welfare itself, namely the non-invasive measurement of glucocorticoids (GCs) as indicators of stress. The paper is divided into three sections. The first discusses the relationship between GCs and stress. The second section considers whether factors other than stress are linked to rises in GCs, eg exercise, oestrus cycle and diet. The final part examines the reliability of the non-invasive techniques that measure GCs from samples of saliva and faeces. Although it is important to take into account some caveats associated with the methodologies employed, it is concluded, nevertheless, that these techniques can give accurate and reliable information regarding the welfare status of an individual or group of animals without the procedures themselves causing any kind of distress to the subjects.
Keywords: animal welfare, cortisol, faeces, non-invasive, refinement, stress
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The effects of individual housing on mice and rats: a review
TC Krohn, DB Sørensen, JL Ottesen and AK Hansen
Abstract
Isolating an animal refers to the situation where the animal is physically fully demarcated from conspecifics without physical, visual, olfactory and auditory contact. Animals housed in separate cages in the same room are, although deprived of physical and visual contact, still in olfactory and auditory contact, and thus not totally isolated. During the fifties and sixties several studies claimed to show physiological and behavioural differences between individually and group housed rats and mice. The so-called ‘Isolation Syndrome’ characterised by changes in corticosterone levels, metabolism, growth, and behaviour was introduced, rather as a model for psychoneurosis than through any concern for animal welfare. Today, it is often stated as common knowledge in laboratory animal science textbooks that individual housing as well as isolation of rats and mice has an effect on physiology and behaviour. It is, however, unclear whether this effect actually impairs animal welfare.
The aim of this paper is to analyse studies on individual housing of mice and rats to evaluate whether there is documented proof that individual housing affects welfare, and, alternatively whether it is possible to house these animals individually without negative impact on welfare, eg by providing special housing improvements.
A range of studies have shown that individual housing or isolation has effects on corticosterone, the open field behaviour, barbiturate sleeping time and the metabolism of different pharmaceuticals in the animals. However, this review of 37 studies in rats and 17 studies in mice showed divergence in test results difficult to explain, as many studies lacked basal information about the study, eg information on genetic strains and housing conditions, such as bedding, enrichment and cage sizes. Furthermore, test and control groups most frequently differed in cage sizes and stocking densities, and behavioural tests differed in ways which may very well explain the differences in results. Overall, there seemed to be an effect of individual housing, although it may be small, and it seems reasonable to assume that, through making small changes in the procedures and housing environments, the effects can be minimized or even eliminated. More well-controlled and standardised studies are needed to give more specific answers to the questions this issue poses.
Keywords: animal welfare, individual housing, isolation, mice, rats
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Effects of aviary and box sizes on body mass and behaviour of domesticated budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)
SG Gebhardt-Henrich and A Steiger
Abstract
Forty-eight budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) were pairwise housed in small (80 × 40 × 50 cm) and large (160 × 40 × 50 cm) (length × breadth × height) boxes, as well as in 2.0 × 1.0 × 2.0 m aviaries. All boxes and aviaries had two or three (aviaries) perches and food was offered on the bottom. The body masses of female budgerigars increased significantly when they were housed in boxes instead of aviaries. The size of the box did not influence body mass. The frequency of flying was adjusted to the size of the box as both males and females flew approximately twice as often from perch to perch in a small box than in a large box of double length. Flying behaviour differed significantly between large and small boxes and aviaries. The ratio of invariantly flying from perch to perch to all flying events increased from aviaries < large boxes < small boxes. About 75% of all flying events in small boxes consisted of flying from perch to perch. Females in boxes spent more time on the bottom where the food was placed than females in aviaries. Both the significant body mass gain in female budgerigars, as well as the invariant, stereotypic flying movements, indicated reduced welfare in budgerigars housed in boxes, compared with those in aviaries. Providing a large box did not prevent body mass gain, but did increase the variation in flying patterns. Under long-term housing conditions, boxes could lead to at least two serious welfare problems; obesity and stereotypic behaviour, and should be avoided for budgerigars. Therefore, aviary housing should be chosen wherever possible.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, budgerigar, housing, obesity, stereotypy
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Salivary cortisol in captive dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): a non-invasive technique
C Pedernera-Romano, RA Valdez, S Singh, X Chiappa, MC Romano and F Galindo
Abstract
Dolphins in captivity have to cope with severe changes in their environment. So far, there are few studies on the welfare of these animals under these conditions. The aim of the present study was to find if cortisol was present in the saliva of dolphins and to explore the possibility of performing serial, non-invasive cortisol assays in captive dolphins. Saliva was collected non-invasively during a month from four dolphins that had responded to previous training, in order to provide saliva samples, in two aquaria in Mexico City. In addition, serum and saliva time-matched samples were obtained in an aquarium in Nuevo Vallarta, Mexico. Cortisol concentrations in saliva and blood were measured by radioimmunoanalysis (RIA). Results show for the first time that measurable quantities of cortisol are secreted within the saliva of dolphins. Salivary cortisol measurements could be a useful tool for carrying out long-term cortisol sampling. It is far less invasive than blood-sampling and could be used, in conjunction with behavioural observations, to monitor the welfare of captive dolphins, non-invasively..
Keywords: animal welfare, saliva cortisol, serum cortisol, steroids, stress
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Artificial colour treatment mediates aggression among unfamiliar vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops): a model for introducing primates with colourful sexual skin
MS Gerald, A Weiss and JE Ayala
Abstract
Aggression and agonism typically accompany the initial interactions exchanged between unfamiliar primates. As a part of a larger study examining the social function of scrotal colour in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus), this paper offers experimental data to show how scrotal colour can influence aggression, and how artificial colour treatment can be used as an effective tool for managing aggression. Study animals were 81 vervet monkey pairs composed of 162 similarly-sized, unfamiliar adult males originating from non-adjacent parishes in Barbados. Non-contact and contact aggression were recorded on a continuous basis during 90 minute introductions. The main effects of the Test male scrotal colour, Stimulus male colour, and the interaction of the Test male and Stimulus male colours were not significant predictors of non-contact aggression. The effects of scrotal coloration of the Test male and Stimulus male were not significant predictors of contact aggression either, but there was a significant interaction effect; pairs of males with similar scrotal colour engaged in contact aggression more often than pairs of males differing in colour. Painting the scrotum dark led to more aggression when these males were paired with dark coloured males and less aggression when these males were paired with pale coloured males. These findings suggest a practical and inexpensive means of reducing the likelihood of aggression when introducing new animals. These results may also be applicable for other taxa that have colourful sexual skin, such as mandrills, drills, talapoins, patas monkeys, and many guenon species.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, colour, introduction, primates, sex skin
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The effect of housing and handling practices on the welfare, behaviour and selection of domestic cats (Felis sylvestris catus) by adopters in an animal shelter
N Gourkow and D Fraser
Abstract
As adult cats can often be difficult to re-home, they may spend long periods in rescue shelters where barren housing and inconsistent handling can reduce their welfare. In this study, 165 adult cats in an animal shelter in Vancouver, Canada, were assigned to four treatments. The Basic Single treatment reflected typical conditions in that particular shelter, with cats handled in an inconsistent manner by various staff and housed singly in relatively barren cages. Three alternative treatments involved more consistent, positive handling by only the experimenter and research assistants, plus three housing conditions: Enriched Single (individual cages with opportunities to perch and hide), Basic Communal (group housing with opportunity for each cat to have personal space), and Enriched Communal (group housing enriched to encourage play and cat – cat interaction). The Basic Single treatment had the lowest percentage adopted in 21 days (45% versus 69 - 76% for other treatment, and higher Cat-Stress-Scores than other treatments The three alternative treatments did not differ significantly on any measure. Cats euthanised for poor health showed higher stress levels when alive than other cats. In a questionnaire, most adopters cited certain behavioural/emotional traits (“friendly”, “playful”, “happy”) as reasons for selecting cats; these were generally associated with lower Stress scores. The results suggest that consistent handling combined with a range of improved housing options can improve the chances of adoption for adult cats, perhaps by reducing fear-related behaviours that make cats less attractive to adopters.
Keywords: adoption, animal shelter, animal welfare, enrichment, handling, shelter stress
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Long-term social memory in the laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus)
OHP Burman and M Mendl
Abstract
A key question in the management of group-housed captive animals is how long can an individual be removed from a social group and still be reintroduced with minimal social upheaval. In order to answer this question we require a knowledge of how long cage-mates, following a specified period of group housing, can remember one another after separation. This issue was investigated in laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus). Rats were group-housed for 18 days before being housed individually. One hour, 48 hr, and 96 hr after separation, they were exposed simultaneously to odour cues originating from unfamiliar rats and from former cage-mates. The rats spent significantly more time investigating the unfamiliar odour 1 hr and 48 hr, but not 96 hr, after separation, suggesting that, after 18 days of group-housing, juvenile rats remember former cage-mates for between 48 and 96 hr. The implications of this result for animal welfare are discussed.
Keywords: animal welfare, habituation/discrimination, laboratory rats, long-term memory, social memory, social recognition
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Reducing mother-young separation distress by inducing ewes into oestrus at the day of weaning
I Pérez-León, A Orihuela, L Lidfors and V Aguirre
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine whether or not oestrus induction on the day of weaning would reduce the distress experienced by ewes upon separation from lambs. For this, 43 ewes, their eight week-old lambs and six mature rams were used. Prior to weaning, 21 of these ewes were induced to display oestrus on the day of mother-young separation (treated group [T]) while the remaining 22 untreated ewes served as controls (C). T and C ewes were housed together. Blood samples were collected on the day of weaning (prior to mother-young separation and 24 hours later) and then nine days later, for plasma progesterone (P4) and cortisol determination. Lambs were separated from their dams by a wire fence at weaning in full view of each other. Three rams were tethered to posts with 3 m plastic chains in the ewes´ pen. T and C groups were simultaneously tested in identical test pens. C ewes showed a greater increase in serum cortisol concentration after separation from lambs (47.64 ± 4.26 nmol l–1) than T ewes (28.79 ± 6.29 nmol l–1). T ewes exhibited fewer vocalisations ewe–1h–1 and fewer vocalisations at 6, 12 and 18 h post separation than C ewes. On the day of weaning, more T ewes were seen to be situated away from lambs and in close proximity to the males, compared to the C group. Thus, more T than C ewes were mounted (14 as opposed to 3) and these received a greater number of mounts (1.02 ± 0.23 per hour, as opposed to 0.11 ± 0.06. It was concluded that by inducing ewes into oestrus at weaning it is possible to reduce the signs of separation distress.
Keywords: animal welfare, mother-young separation, proceptivity, sheep, stress, weaning
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